The twenty-first century has witnessed a radical transformation in the global order, much of which has been underpinned by one of the most critical and contested resources: energy. Energy is no longer just a fuel for industry or an enabler of domestic consumption—it is now a key driver of world politics, shaping strategic relations, economic dependencies, and global governance frameworks. From the manipulation of oil prices to the strategic race for critical minerals and the weaponization of gas pipelines, energy is increasingly conceptualized as the lifeblood of geopolitical power. Yet, the distinctive frameworks of global energy governance, centred on cooperation, regulation, and sustainability, stand in tension with the realpolitik dynamics of energy geopolitics.
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At the core of energy geopolitics lies the imperative of great power competition. Nations such as the United States, Russia, and China have increasingly shaped their foreign policy goals around securing energy dominance. Russia’s gas-based diplomacy with Europe, China’s aggressive Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) energy investments across Africa and Asia, and the United States’ push for energy independence and dominance in liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports all demonstrate the entanglement of national security with energy flows. The recent Russia–Ukraine war starkly highlighted how energy can be weaponized, with Europe urgently recalibrating its energy policies under the REPowerEU plan to reduce dependence on Russian gas.
In addition, technological advancement has brought energy front and center of future geopolitics. Digitalization, electrification of transport, artificial intelligence, and automation are power-hungry revolutions that demand secure, stable, and scalable energy sources. Nations are no longer competing for oil alone—they are now racing for lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements, and silicon wafers essential for solar and battery technologies. China's dominance in solar photovoltaics and battery supply chains has prompted a wave of protectionist responses from the U.S. and EU, revealing how future technology and energy transitions are deeply geopolitical.
Moreover, energy security has now been reframed as national security. No longer a niche policy concern, access to energy directly determines a state's ability to withstand economic shocks, assert military power, and ensure domestic stability. This is evident in South Asian nations like Pakistan and Bangladesh, whose energy crises during global oil price fluctuations have triggered inflation and political instability. Similarly, Gulf nations strategically control energy flows through the Strait of Hormuz, giving them outsized influence in regional security dynamics.
Climate change further complicates the energy-geopolitics nexus. While the global consensus has tilted toward decarbonization, many oil-rich states see this shift as a threat to their rent-based economies. Hence, some have responded by accelerating oil exports before the global demand curve dips. At the same time, climate-driven energy policies—such as the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act or the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism—are being used as tools to recalibrate trade, emissions, and geopolitical dependencies.
Simultaneously, the emergence of energy-based alliances such as OPEC+, the I2U2 group (India, Israel, UAE, U.S.), and the Power of Siberia project between Russia and China reveal the increasing use of energy to solidify global influence. These alliances often go beyond economics—they embed security cooperation, technology transfers, and long-term strategic vision, reshaping global power hierarchies.
Despite these trends, global energy governance seeks a radically different path. Organizations like the International Energy Agency (IEA), International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) emphasize inclusive decision-making, climate justice, transparency, and sustainable development. Their aim is to prevent power asymmetries from dictating energy access or transitions. However, this idealistic framework is increasingly tested by the harsh realities of energy geopolitics.
The contrast between energy geopolitics and global energy governance lies in three fundamental dimensions. First is the role of great powers. In governance structures, states commit to multilateralism and shared goals, but in geopolitical terms, these very powers pursue zero-sum strategies for energy dominance. Russia’s manipulation of OPEC+ quotas and China’s use of energy diplomacy under BRI are prominent examples.
Second, while governance emphasizes strategic cooperation for shared security, geopolitics exploits these same mechanisms to build exclusionary blocs. The EU’s pivot to the U.S. for LNG imports after the Ukraine war, or Russia’s move toward Asian buyers to replace European markets, demonstrate how strategic energy cooperation is being repurposed as a tool of bloc politics.
Third, resource control remains the most volatile fault line. Global energy governance promotes democratized access and sustainability, but geopolitical behavior often centers on monopolization. China’s scramble for critical minerals in Africa, the U.S. military’s energy protection strategy in the Middle East, and Arctic militarization under the Polar Silk Road initiative exemplify this divergence. The South China Sea dispute, with overlapping claims tied to energy-rich seabeds, is a visible flashpoint where resource control trumps cooperative governance.
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Ultimately, the conceptualized energy’s influence on geopolitics is no longer limited to oil pipelines or gas deals. It encompasses every domain—cyberspace, trade, climate, security, and diplomacy. The paradox, however, is that the very countries pushing for renewable energy, climate action, and multilateral governance are often the ones instrumentalizing energy for strategic gain. The global energy transition, instead of leveling the playing field, may create new forms of asymmetry, between resource-rich and tech-rich nations, between developed and developing economies, and between climate pioneers and climate laggards.
In conclusion, energy is no longer a mere commodity; it is a strategic enabler, a geopolitical weapon, and a governance challenge. As the world grapples with energy transitions amid rising nationalism and great power rivalry, balancing energy geopolitics with global energy governance will be one of the defining challenges of the 21st century. Only a cooperative and accountable governance framework, grounded in equity and resilience, can ensure that the future of energy empowers rather than divides.
