In an age defined by movements for equality, justice, and liberty, the language of human rights has become both universal and urgent. Nations gather at global forums to pledge support for human dignity, activists raise their voices against repression, and institutions work to guarantee fundamental freedoms across borders. Amid this collective pursuit of justice, the Western philosophy of human rights has dominated modern legal and political thought. Yet, long before charters were signed or constitutions written, a powerful declaration of rights emerged from the plains of Arafat, the Prophet Muhammad’s [peace be upon him] final sermon, known as Hijjatul Wida.
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This historic address, delivered more than fourteen centuries ago, remains one of the most comprehensive and timeless articulations of human rights ever recorded. It outlines a holistic vision for human dignity that remains deeply relevant in today’s fractured world. While the Western model emphasises individual autonomy and secular legal protections, the Islamic approach, as exemplified in this sermon, blends personal liberty with social responsibility, rights with duties, and freedom with moral accountability.
To understand the distinction, one must begin with the contemporary Western perspective. Modern human rights frameworks, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), are primarily shaped by liberal thought. At their core lies a belief in individual freedom, legal protection, and universal application. These rights, which include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and protection from discrimination or torture, are intended to transcend national, cultural, and religious boundaries. In practice, however, they often reflect the priorities and moral assumptions of Western political systems. While this model has achieved much in advancing civil liberties, it faces criticism for being overly individualistic and sometimes inattentive to the communal, spiritual, or cultural dimensions of human life.
Islamic thought approaches the matter differently. It offers a model in which rights are embedded in a broader moral and spiritual framework. The individual is not viewed in isolation but as part of a social fabric. Rights are balanced with responsibilities. Freedom is cherished but never detached from accountability before God and fellow human beings. This philosophy is profoundly evident in the Farewell Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon him], delivered during his last pilgrimage.
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The sermon begins by rejecting every form of superiority based on race, ethnicity, or lineage. “No Arab is superior to a non-Arab, and no white is superior to a Black, except by piety,” declared the Prophet to the assembled crowd. This foundational principle of equality remains a moral benchmark in human rights discourse. In a time when social hierarchies based on tribe and class were the norm, the Prophet’s words dismantled the notion of inherited privilege and replaced it with the idea of equal worth. Islam, therefore, places moral character and sincerity above social status, race, or wealth.
Moreover, the sermon stressed dignity and mutual respect as a universal entitlement. The Prophet reminded the people that their lives, property, and honour were sacred, just as the day and place of the sermon were sacred. He commanded that every trust be returned, and that no one should harm another, either physically or financially. These statements form the bedrock of a community built not on dominance, but on trust and ethical conduct. Every human being, regardless of social standing, was to be treated with kindness and fairness.
Another remarkable feature of the sermon is its emphasis on the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups. The Prophet warned against oppressing non-Muslims or those under Muslim protection. “Whoever is cruel to a non-Muslim citizen, burdens them beyond their capacity, or takes anything from them unjustly, I will be his prosecutor on the Day of Judgment,” he said. In today’s climate, where minority rights are often a source of political friction, this principle offers a clear, divine mandate for inclusion and fairness.
Nowhere is the sermon more ahead of its time than in its defence of women’s rights. The Prophet reminded men that women are partners, not possessions. He affirmed their entitlement to kind treatment, security, and fair maintenance. “You have rights over your wives, and they have rights over you,” he said. He condemned abuse and negligence, urging a relationship built on mutual respect. In a society where women had been historically marginalised, this recognition of their dignity and legal status was not only revolutionary, but it also became foundational to Islamic family law.
The sermon also addresses the right to property, wealth, and inheritance. The Prophet made it clear that private property is sacred. Trusts must be honoured, and unjust wealth accumulation is forbidden. Usury was condemned in clear terms, and the Prophet instructed that all debts and transactions be fair. Economic justice in Islam is not only about charity, but about preventing exploitation, protecting rightful ownership, and ensuring dignity through fair livelihoods.
Among the most central rights established by the sermon is the right to life and security. The Prophet compared the sanctity of human life to the sacredness of the day and the land on which they stood. Harming others, unjustly taking life, or violating another’s safety was declared a grave sin. This was not an abstract philosophical principle; it was a social directive meant to protect the vulnerable and maintain peace in a newly forming civil society.
Importantly, the sermon outlined the principle of social justice, rooted in the concept of ADL, or fairness. The Prophet urged people to stand against wrongdoing, even when it was uncomfortable. “If you see injustice,” he said, “change it with your hand. If you cannot, then use your tongue. If not, then at least feel it in your heart.” This moral imperative to act against evil and speak for what is right continues to shape Islamic teachings on civic responsibility.
Taken together, these principles form a complete human rights doctrine, one that integrates the body and soul, society and self, and law and morality. The Farewell Sermon of the Prophet [peace be upon him] does not present a list of entitlements disconnected from context. Instead, it presents a roadmap where rights are reinforced by responsibility, where law is upheld by conscience, and where human dignity is protected not only by force but by faith.
Of course, the Islamic model and the Western model are not identical. Their origins, methodologies, and scopes differ. The Western concept emphasizes rights as entitlements guaranteed by legal systems, often rooted in secular frameworks. Islam, however, frames rights within the context of divine guidance, ethical obligations, and collective well-being. The modern discourse often struggles to reconcile the two. Yet, rather than being at odds, these perspectives can complement each other. Where one stresses the sovereignty of the individual, the other underscores the moral responsibility of the individual to society.
In critical analysis, both models offer value. Western human rights frameworks have been instrumental in resisting tyranny, securing individual liberties, and upholding political freedoms. At the same time, Islamic teachings provide a moral compass that connects rights to a higher accountability and fosters social cohesion. The Prophet’s sermon offers not just a list of liberties, but a way of living together with fairness, humility, and shared dignity.
Today, as global society grapples with inequality, injustice, and rising intolerance, the message of Hijjatul Wida remains not only relevant but necessary. Its principles are universal, its call to conscience is timeless, and its emphasis on justice is unwavering. In a world flooded with words and declarations, here is a sermon that needs no embellishment, only remembrance, understanding, and sincere application.
